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Tutorial 12: Quaternions

Gimbal lock is a common problem when applying successive rotations to a model in Euclidean space. In this tutorial we add rotation capabilities to your models, by making use of quaternions. Quaternions provide an elegant solution to avoid Gimbal locks.
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Theory

Any possible rotation of an object in three-dimensional space can be represented by an axis and a rotation around this axis. The axis is represented by a vector (x; y; z), and the angle of rotation around the axis by a scalar value θ. With these four values, x, y, z and θ, we can represent any possible rotation in 3D space.


Quaternions provide a way to "encode" the above axis-angle representation into four numbers, and apply the rotation around a selected point in space. The advantages of quaternions are numerous and include the following:
  • Any possible rotation in 3D space can be represented easily with the four real values that make up a quaternion.
  • It is easy to merge multiple successive rotations into a single rotation represented by a single quaternion, by multiplying quaternions.
  • You don't have gimbal lock problems with quaternions.
  • Once implemented properly, quaternions are very easy to work with.
  • Fluent animations are easily composed by interpolating between quaternions.
The four values that make up a quaternion are better known as x, y, z and w. The following formulas are used to convert a Euclidean axis-angle pair, defined with vector (X, Y, Z) and angle θ respectively, into a quaternion:

Quaternion X = Axis X × sin(θ / 2)
Quaternion Y = Axis Y × sin(θ / 2)
Quaternion Z = Axis Z × sin(θ / 2)
Quaternion W = cos(θ / 2)

An operation that is used often on quaternions, is quaternion multiplication. You effectively merge two successive rotations into a single rotation by multiplying two quaternions. The following formulas are used to calculate the product of two quaternions named Q1 and Q2:
Result W = Q1W × Q2W - Q1X × Q2X - Q1Y × Q2Y - Q1Z × Q2Z
Result X = Q1W × Q2X + Q1X × Q2W + Q1Y × Q2Z - Q1Z × Q2Y
Result Y = Q1W × Q2Y - Q1X × Q2Z + Q1Y × Q2W + Q1Z × Q2X
Result Z = Q1W × Q2Z + Q1X × Q2Y - Q1Y × Q2X + Q1Z × Q2W

We define three rotation actions when working with objects in three-dimensional space, pitch, yaw and roll, as shown below.




Pitch, yaw and roll rotations are now easily applied to existing quaternion by making use of quaternion multiplication.

Pitch rotate quaternion with θ degrees:

If Q is the quaternion we want to rotate, and P the quaternion created from axis (1, 0, 0) and angle θ, then:

Pitch rotated Q = Q × P

Yaw rotate quaternion with θ degrees:

If Q is the quaternion we want to rotate, and Y the quaternion created from axis (0, 1, 0) and angle θ, then:

Yaw rotated Q = Q × Y

Roll rotate quaternion with θ degrees:

If Q is the quaternion we want to rotate, and R the quaternion created from axis (0, 0, 1) and angle θ, then:

Roll rotated Q = Q × R

The multiplication technique shown above can be used to rotate a quaternion around any axis in 3D space, when more advanced rotations are needed than simple pitch, yaw and roll rotations.

Tutorial Steps

1. Open Xojo.
2. In the Project Chooser select Desktop.
3. Enter "Tutorial012" as the Application Name, and click OK.
4. Save your project.
5. Configure the following controls:

Control Name Left Top Caption DoubleBuffer Maximize Button
Window SurfaceWindow - - - - ON
OpenGLSurface Surface 123 0 - ON -
Generic Button RollPlusButton 20 14 Roll + - -
Generic Button RollMinusButton 20 48 Roll - - -
Generic Button YawPlusButton 20 82 Yaw + - -
Generic Button YawMinusButton 20 116 Yaw - - -
Generic Button PitchPlusButton 20 150 Pitch + - -
Generic Button PitchMinusButton 20 184 Pitch - - -

6. Position and size Surface to fill the whole part of the window not occupied by the buttons, and set its locking to left, top, bottom and right.


7. Add the following code to the SurfaceWindow.Paint event handler:

Surface.Render

8. Import the X3Core module, created in the previous tutorial.
9. Add the following code to the Surface.Open event handler:

X3_Initialize

X3_EnableLight OpenGL.GL_LIGHT0, new X3Core.X3Light(0, 0, 1)

10. Add the following code to the Surface.Resized event handler:

X3_SetPerspective Surface

11. Add the following constants to X3Core:

Name Value Type
X3_180OverPi 57.295779513082321 Number
X3_PiOver180 0.017453292519943 Number

12. Add a new class named "X3Quaternion" to module X3Core.
13. Add the following properties to X3Quaternion:

Name Type
X Double
Y Double
Z Double
W Double

14. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Constructor()
  W = 1
  X = 0
  Y = 0
  Z = 0
End Sub

15. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Constructor(initW As Double, initX As Double, initY As Double, initZ As Double)
  W = initW
  X = initX
  Y = initY
  Z = initZ
End Sub

16. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Normalize()
  Dim m As Double
  m = Sqrt(x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + w^2)
  if m > 0 then
    w = w / m
    x = x / m
    y = y / m
    z = z / m
  end if
End Sub

17. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Multiply(q As X3Quaternion)
  Dim resultX As Double
  Dim resultY As Double
  Dim resultZ As Double
  Dim resultW As Double

  resultW = (w * q.w) - (x * q.x) - (y * q.y) - (z * q.z)
  resultX = (w * q.x) + (x * q.w) + (y * q.z) - (z * q.y)
  resultY = (w * q.y) - (x * q.z) +(y * q.w) + (z * q.x)
  resultZ = (w * q.z) +(x * q.y) - (y * q.x) +(z * q.w)

  x = resultX
  y = resultY
  z = resultZ
  w = resultW
End Sub

18. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub FromEulerRotation(x As Double, y As Double, z As Double, angle As Double)
  Dim halfAngle As Double
  Dim sinAng As Double

  halfAngle = (angle * X3_PiOver180) / 2
  sinAng = sin(halfAngle)

  Me.X = (x * sinAng)
  Me.Y = (y * sinAng)
  Me.Z = (z * sinAng)
  Me.W = cos(halfAngle)
End Sub

19. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Pitch(angle As Double)
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion
  tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(1, 0, 0, angle)
  Multiply tmpQuat
  Normalize
End Sub

20. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Yaw(angle As Double)
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion
  tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(0, 1, 0, angle)
  Multiply tmpQuat
  Normalize
End Sub

21. Add the following method to X3Quaternion:

Sub Roll(angle As Double)
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion
  tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(0, 0, 1, angle)
  Multiply tmpQuat
  Normalize
End Sub

22. Add the following method to X3Vector:

Sub Normalize()
  Dim m As Double
  m = Sqrt(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)
  if m > 0 then
    x = x / m
    y = y / m
    z = z / m
  end if
End Sub

23. Add the following property to X3Model:

Name Type
Rotation X3Quaternion

24. Add the following method to X3Model:

Sub Constructor()
  Rotation = new X3Quaternion()
End Sub

25. Add the following method to module X3Core:

Sub X3_SetRotation(rotation As X3Quaternion)
  Dim angle As Double
  Dim axis As new X3Vector(rotation.x, rotation.y, rotation.z)

  axis.Normalize
  angle = ACos(rotation.w) * 2 * X3_180OverPi

  OpenGL.glRotated angle, axis.x, axis.y, axis.z
End Sub

26. Add the following method to module X3Core:

Sub X3_RotateWithXY(q As X3Quaternion, xAngle As Double, yAngle As Double)
  Dim result As new X3Quaternion
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion

  if xAngle <> 0 then
    tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(1, 0, 0, xAngle)
    result.Multiply(tmpQuat)
  end if

  if yAngle <> 0 then
    tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(0, 1, 0, yAngle)
    result.Multiply(tmpQuat)
  end if

  result.Multiply(q)
  result.Normalize

  q.W = result.W
  q.X = result.X
  q.Y = result.Y
  q.Z = result.Z
End Sub

27. Add the following method to X3Polygon:

Sub CalculateNormal()
  Dim v1X As Double
  Dim v1Y As Double
  Dim v1Z As Double
  Dim v2X As Double
  Dim v2Y As Double
  Dim v2Z As Double
  Dim cpX As Double
  Dim cpY As Double
  Dim cpZ As Double
  Dim m As Double

  v1X = Vertex(1).X - Vertex(0).X
  v1Y = Vertex(1).Y - Vertex(0).Y
  v1Z = Vertex(1).Z - Vertex(0).Z

  v2X = Vertex(2).X - Vertex(1).X
  v2Y = Vertex(2).Y - Vertex(1).Y
  v2Z = Vertex(2).Z - Vertex(1).Z

  cpX = v1Y * v2Z - v1Z * v2Y
  cpY = v1Z * v2X - v1X * v2Z
  cpZ = v1X * v2Y - v1Y * v2X

  m = Sqrt(cpX^2 + cpY^2 + cpZ^2)

  Normal.X = cpX / m
  Normal.Y = cpY / m
  Normal.Z = cpZ / m
End Sub

28. Import the X3Test module into your project.
29. Add the following properties to SurfaceWindow:

Name Type
Model X3Core.X3Model
MousePrevX Integer
MousePrevY Integer

30. Add the following code to the SurfaceWindow.Open event handler:

Self.MouseCursor = System.Cursors.StandardPointer

Model = X3Test_Paperplane()
Model.Rotation.Pitch(20)

31. Add the following code to the Surface.Render event handler:

OpenGL.glClearColor(1, 1, 1, 1)
OpenGL.glClear(OpenGL.GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT + OpenGL.GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT)

OpenGL.glPushMatrix

OpenGL.glTranslatef 0, 0, -5

X3_RenderModel Model

OpenGL.glPopMatrix

32. Add the following code to the Surface.MouseDown event handler:

MousePrevX = x
MousePrevY = y

return true

33. Add the following code to the Surface.MouseDrag event handler:

X3_RotateWithXY Model.Rotation, (y - MousePrevY), (x - MousePrevX)

Surface.Render

MousePrevX = x
MousePrevY = y

34. Make the following changes to the X3Core.X3_RenderModel method:

' add the following two lines directly after the variable declarations
' just before OpenGL.glBegin OpenGL.GL_TRIANGLES

OpenGL.glPushMatrix

X3_SetRotation(model.Rotation)

' add the following line to the end of the method
' just after OpenGL.glEnd

OpenGL.glPopMatrix

35. Add the following code to the RollPlusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Roll(10)
Surface.Render

36. Add the following code to the RollMinusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Roll(-10)
Surface.Render

37. Add the following code to the YawPlusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Yaw(10)
Surface.Render

38. Add the following code to the YawMinusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Yaw(-10)
Surface.Render

39. Add the following code to the YawMinusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Yaw(-10)
Surface.Render

40. Add the following code to the PitchPlusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Pitch(10)
Surface.Render

41. Add the following code to the PitchMinusButton.Action event handler:

Model.Rotation.Pitch(-10)
Surface.Render

42. Save and run your project. Drag the paperplane with your mouse to rotate it.

Analysis

X3Quaternion.Normalize:

Sub Normalize()
  Dim m As Double
  m = Sqrt(x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + w^2)
  if m > 0 then
    w = w / m
    x = x / m
    y = y / m
    z = z / m
  end if
End Sub
To create a unit quaternion (a quaternion with a length of 1), you need to normalize the quaternion. The Normalize() method does this by dividing each component of the quaternion with the magnitude of the quaternion.
X3Quaternion.Multiply:

Sub Multiply(q As X3Quaternion)
  Dim resultX As Double
  Dim resultY As Double
  Dim resultZ As Double
  Dim resultW As Double

  resultW = (w * q.w) - (x * q.x) - (y * q.y) - (z * q.z)
  resultX = (w * q.x) + (x * q.w) + (y * q.z) - (z * q.y)
  resultY = (w * q.y) - (x * q.z) +(y * q.w) + (z * q.x)
  resultZ = (w * q.z) +(x * q.y) - (y * q.x) +(z * q.w)

  x = resultX
  y = resultY
  z = resultZ
  w = resultW
End Sub
Quaternion multiplication is invaluable when it comes to applying successive rotations to a model.

The explanation of the mathematics used to multiply two quaternions is beyond the scope of this tutorial, but it is important to note that quaternion multiplication is non-commutative. This means that if Q and R are two quaternions, then Q×R will yield a different answer than R×Q. The order in which you multiply quaternions is, therefore, very important.
X3Quaternion.FromEulerRotation:

Sub FromEulerRotation(x As Double, y As Double, z As Double, angle As Double)
  Dim halfAngle As Double
  Dim sinAng As Double

  halfAngle = (angle * X3_PiOver180) / 2
  sinAng = sin(halfAngle)

  Me.X = (x * sinAng)
  Me.Y = (y * sinAng)
  Me.Z = (z * sinAng)
  Me.W = cos(halfAngle)
End Sub
FromEulerRotation is a helper method that is used to transform a Eulaer axis-angle pair into a four-dimensional quaternion. Note that the angle is given in degrees. The explanation of the mathematics used to transform a Euler axis-angle pair into a quaternion is beyond the scope of this tutorial.
X3Quaternion.Pitch:

Sub Pitch(angle As Double)
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion
  tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(1, 0, 0, angle)
  Multiply tmpQuat
  Normalize
End Sub
The Pitch method, of the X3Quaternion class, applies a pitch rotation to an existing quaternion. First, we create a new pitch rotation quaternion, from the unit x-axis and a rotation applied around this axis. Then, we simply multiply the new rotation quaternion with the existing quaternion. Finally, we normalize the result to ensure that we end up with a unit quaternion.
X3Quaternion.Yaw:

Sub Yaw(angle As Double)
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion
  tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(0, 1, 0, angle)
  Multiply tmpQuat
  Normalize
End Sub
The Yaw method, of the X3Quaternion class, applies a yaw rotation to an existing quaternion. First, we create a new yaw rotation quaternion, from the unit y-axis and a rotation applied around this axis. Then, we simply multiply the new rotation quaternion with the existing quaternion. Finally, we normalize the result to ensure that we end up with a unit quaternion.
X3Quaternion.Roll:

Sub Roll(angle As Double)
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion
  tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(0, 1, 0, angle)
  Multiply tmpQuat
  Normalize
End Sub
The Roll method, of the X3Quaternion class, applies a roll rotation to an existing quaternion. First, we create a new roll rotation quaternion, from the unit z-axis and a rotation applied around this axis. Then, we simply multiply the new rotation quaternion with the existing quaternion. Finally, we normalize the result to ensure that we end up with a unit quaternion.
X3Vector.Normalize:

Sub Normalize()
  Dim m As Double
  m = Sqrt(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)
  if m > 0 then
    x = x / m
    y = y / m
    z = z / m
  end if
End Sub
To create a unit vector (a vector with a length of 1), you need to normalize the vector. The Normalize() method does this by dividing each component of the vector with the magnitude of the vector.
X3Core.X3_SetRotation:

Sub X3_SetRotation(rotation As X3Quaternion)
  Dim angle As Double
  Dim axis As new X3Vector(rotation.x, rotation.y, rotation.z)

  axis.Normalize
  angle = ACos(rotation.w) * 2 * X3_180OverPi

  OpenGL.glRotated angle, axis.x, axis.y, axis.z
End Sub
X3_SetRotation is a helper function, to apply the rotation defined by a quaternion, in the OpenGL environment.
X3Core.X3_RotateWithXY:

Sub X3_RotateWithXY(q As X3Quaternion, xAngle As Double, yAngle As Double)
  Dim result As new X3Quaternion
  Dim tmpQuat As new X3Quaternion

  if xAngle <> 0 then
    tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(1, 0, 0, xAngle)
    result.Multiply(tmpQuat)
  end if

  if yAngle <> 0 then
    tmpQuat.FromEulerRotation(0, 1, 0, yAngle)
    result.Multiply(tmpQuat)
  end if

  result.Multiply(q)
  result.Normalize

  q.W = result.W
  q.X = result.X
  q.Y = result.Y
  q.Z = result.Z
End Sub
Sometimes you might need to rotate a model when you only have the X and Y values as input, e.g. in a 3D editor when the user uses the mouse cursor to rotate a model. X3_RotateWithXY is a helper function, to rotate a quaternion when you only have the X and Y values available.

From the code you can see that we first apply a pitch rotation with the X value, and then a yaw rotation with the Y value. This effectively rotates the quaternion in 3D space, when only the X and Y values available.
X3Polygon.CalculateNormal:

Sub CalculateNormal()
  Dim v1X As Double
  Dim v1Y As Double
  Dim v1Z As Double
  Dim v2X As Double
  Dim v2Y As Double
  Dim v2Z As Double
  Dim cpX As Double
  Dim cpY As Double
  Dim cpZ As Double
  Dim m As Double

  v1X = Vertex(1).X - Vertex(0).X
  v1Y = Vertex(1).Y - Vertex(0).Y
  v1Z = Vertex(1).Z - Vertex(0).Z

  v2X = Vertex(2).X - Vertex(1).X
  v2Y = Vertex(2).Y - Vertex(1).Y
  v2Z = Vertex(2).Z - Vertex(1).Z

  cpX = v1Y * v2Z - v1Z * v2Y
  cpY = v1Z * v2X - v1X * v2Z
  cpZ = v1X * v2Y - v1Y * v2X

  m = Sqrt(cpX^2 + cpY^2 + cpZ^2)

  Normal.X = cpX / m
  Normal.Y = cpY / m
  Normal.Z = cpZ / m
End Sub
When you instantiate a new polygon with vertices, the CalculateNormal can be used to calculate the normal of this polygon using the vertices. It can also be called when the vertex data change, to re-calculate the new normal.

First, the two vectors that form two edges of the triangular polygon is determined, v1 and v2 respectively. Then, the cross product of these two vectors are calculated. The cross product is the vector that is perpendicular to the surface formed by v1 and v2, better known as the normal. Finally, we normalize the vector and store the results.
   

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